Students

Thank you for your kind words. We’re going to address this question in three chunks:

• Displaying Student Work (putting the work in hallways);
• Using Student Work (in “promotional materials, social media postings, BOCES and Component District publications, general communication, curriculum writing, plus many other examples”); and
• Solutions (because that is what is requested).

Displaying Student Work

Just last week, I went to my 11-year-old daughter’s art show at her school, where two works (a collage and a self-portrait) were on display with the work of other students grades 5 through 8.

I watched as the students and their families looked over their work, praising, critiquing,[1] and learning together. The art teachers were there, smiling and commenting.

I knew from my daughter that the students had been working on their submissions all year and saw this show as the culmination of a long learning experience.

It sounds like the students referred to in this question are getting a similar benefit. The display is not mere decoration; it is part of an educational experience that teaches creation with an aim to display. I imagine that often, this connects to many learning outcomes in the curriculum.

When display of the work is part of the educational experience, no permission is needed to display the work, because subsection (1) of Section 110 of the Copyright Act allows it.

Section 110 of the Copyright is a broad collection of exceptions to copyright infringement, often in excess of what is allowed by Section 107 (“Fair use”). An excellent commentary on the rights created by 110 can be found here, in the “Notes” tab: https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/110.

For people who want extra credit, I encourage reading the full “Notes” at that link, but for the current question, what’s important is that 110 (1) says:

Notwithstanding the provisions of section 106, the following are not infringements of copyright:

(1) performance or display of a work by instructors or pupils in the course of face-to-face teaching activities of a nonprofit educational institution, in a classroom or similar place devoted to instruction...

While generally this refers to the work of third parties (like reading a poem by Marquis Burton during a class on poetry), it does apply to student work if the culminating experience of the work being on display is part of the educational experience.

Of course, just because something is legal doesn’t mean it is appropriate; as the member’s question points out, the school wants to empower and respect the students, not outfox them on an obscure point of copyright law.

To ensure awareness and respect, schools use opt-in and opt-out forms, as mentioned in the question.

Which brings us to the next part of the question.

Using Student Work

Every single example here (promotional materials, social media postings, BOCES and Component District publications, general communication, curriculum writing) requires written permission of the author,[2] without exception, and when the author is a minor, permission of their parent or legal guardian.

This is where the “opt-in” form mentioned in the question is a great tool.

My favorite thing about this type of form is not that it is used as a mini-contract to get appropriate permission to use student work[3] but rather that it can be used to educate students on their rights as a creator and copyright owner, which brings us to...

Solutions

Below is sample language[4] for a form securing permission to use student work in various media and educating students and their families about their rights.

[Letterhead]

[Date]

Dear student and family:

Our [type] display of student work is approaching!

This form is for two things: display of student work at the show and use of student work in other places.

Please review it carefully and send it back in by DATE.

DISPLAY AT THE SHOW

As a student creator, a student owns the copyrights to their work. Just as important, both state and federal law protect student privacy.

Our [art show/course/class] will allow students to participate in the full experience of creating and displaying creative work.

Because students have the right to control their creative works and have a right to privacy, if a student wants to OPT OUT of the display of their work, they may do so. Otherwise, because this is an educational experience, the work will be displayed, and we will have a show on DATE. Students will not be penalized for choosing not to show their work.

To opt out of their work being displayed, the student can check the below section. It is not necessary to return a signed form in order to participate in the [show/display].

[  ] I OPT OUT of my work being displayed at the school. I understand I will not be penalized for this choice, and I know I can change my mind.

Signed by student: _______________________________

Acknowledged by parent:_______________________________

USE OF YOUR ARTWORK

Because your work is special, the school and our BOCES would like to be able to use it in promotional materials, social media postings, publications, general communications, curriculum writing, and in other places. We will credit you as the student artist!

If you consent to this use of your work, please sign the release below.

STUDENT: I consent to the use of my work in different places.

Signed by student: _______________________________

PARENT/GUARDIAN: On behalf of the student, I also consent to use of their work in different places by the school and BOCES.

Signed by parent:_____________________

To the student: please know that once you are 18 years old, you can revoke this permission at any time; just send the school a note, and if the image is still being used, we will stop using it from that point on.

Thank you!

Conclusion

I know that form is A LOT, but the good news is that if it isn’t returned, it simply means the student’s work is in the show, but they haven’t given permission for it to be used in any other ways.[5]

The experience of preparing creative work for display can be a key educational experience. Using those moments to educate students (and their families) about their rights can enhance their learning experience and empower them.

While copyright can be obscure,[6] experience shows that students who must contend with challenges in life—exceptional learning needs, behavior concerns, etc.—may end up being powerful generators of intellectual property. Students going into trades after career and technical education are very likely to become small business owners and will benefit from learning, early on, that they will own their business names,[7] any designs they might prepare for work,[8] and other work they author as they conduct their business. Early education on these concepts will help them for decades after.

Of course, the member who sent this is knows all this, which is why they asked such an important and thoughtful question.

Thank you!

Questions that combine higher education, data access, and "terms of use" enforcement always give me a moment of sad reflection, as I remember Internet pioneer and activist Aaron Schwartz. It was an alleged overuse of an academic database at MIT in 2012 that lead up to his demise.[1]

While the circumstances in the Schwartz tragedy are different from the situation described here, both scenarios--and the care the member has taken in framing this question--illustrate the importance of considering what's at stake when an institution balances contract compliance, digital access, and privacy.

What's "at stake" here? The member's question combines concerns about:

• Confidential use of library resources
• Academic freedom
• Intellectual freedom
• Honoring the exclusion of certain academic and library actions from liability for copyright infringement
• FERPA

Let's do a quick run-down of these critical areas:

In New York, the confidentiality of library services is protected by Civil Practice Law & Rules ("CPLR") section 4509, which states that library records indicative of the identity of a library user may only be accessed with that user's permission, or per a subpoena or court order. CPLR 4509 applies to private libraries within academic institutions as much as it does public libraries or those within school districts. It works hand-in-glove with the American Library Association's and New York Library Association's recitals of patron confidentiality in their Codes of Ethics.

In New York, the commitment of a higher education institution to academic freedom is reflected in various ways. An example is the American Association of University Professors' 1940 "Statement on the Principles of Academic Freedom"[2]: "Teachers are entitled to full freedom in research..."

In New York and throughout the nation, the commitment of libraries to collaborate with others to promote intellectual freedom and access to information is reflected the ALA Library Bill of Rights: "Libraries should cooperate with all persons and groups concerned with resisting abridgment of free expression and free access to ideas."

In New York and throughout the nation, certain academic and library actions that would otherwise violate copyright are excluded from liability for infringement. This exclusion is to ensure there is a clear and well-defined legal safety net for content accessed in furtherance of certain intellectual and academic freedoms.

And throughout the USA, the privacy of education records, including library records, is assured under the Family Education Rights Privacy Act" (FERPA).

Serving as a counterweight to all of these critical factors are an educational institution's obligations under federal law and regulation with regard to alleged copyright infringement, particularly the regulations found in 34 CFR §668. If I were to delve into that and describe all of those obligations here, this answer would be 50 times longer, but a good summary of what compliance in that regard looks like can be found in this sample policy from RIT: https://www.rit.edu/its/rit-response-copyright-infringement.  In short:  since 2008, federal law requires higher education institutions receiving federal financial aid and other federal benefits to be express enforcers and re-enforcers of copyright.[3]

Sitting astride of all of this is whatever notification commitments (and other responses)  a college or university library agreed to when it signed the license agreement with the database provider (I have reviewed many of these types of license agreements, and almost all of them have some form of notification action requirement, which can range from a warning as described by the member, to ensuring the immediate cutoff of access by an offender).  This means that in addition to the ethical, legal, and regulatory factors that have to be balanced in a question like this, we also have to consider obligations that are contractual.[4]

With all of these very important considerations now laid before us, let's review what the member is doing:  1) getting a notification of a possible terms violation from the provider, and then 2) using a firewalled[5] process to identify the user and alert them of the alleged violation, and then 3) assuring the vendor they have addressed the issue.  As asked by the member:  Is this process appropriate in resolving the misuse of a database, or does it violate the user’s/student’s privacy rights?

Here is my short answer: since the method of response described by the member shows there is a big firewall between the vendor and the institution (meaning: the outside party never learns the actual identity of the alleged violator), I believe so.  BUT: the only real way to ensure privacy is protected as it should be is to confirm that the information flowing between the library and the IT Department never goes any further...within the institution.

What do I mean by that? The information should never go to campus safety or security. Unless it is per a very clearly articulated procedure developed for the operational needs of the library, it should never go to the office responsible for student discipline. And it should certainly never go to an employer on campus, a faculty member, or an advisor.[6]

This caution is warranted because, although a library within a higher educational institution is not a separate business entity the way a chartered public library is an entity separate from the town or city that sponsors it, for purposes of an academic library's adherence to privacy ethics and laws, it should be considered a stand-alone entity. Information can flow into it, but information should not flow out, even to other departments, unless the flow serves the operational needs of the library, and verifiably goes no further.

This 'one-way flow" for user-associated academic library records is an easy goal to articulate, but in practice, it can be very difficult to assure. As systems within large and small institutions get more integrated in the interests of security and economy, so too is it more difficult to separate one type of information from another. However, when it comes to privacy and library confidentiality, because of the high stakes involving intellectual freedom, academic freedom, and student privacy, extra care and attention is warranted.

The care of the member in submitting this question and describing the careful process they are using is emblematic of the type of care that should be used at all times when safeguarding user confidentiality and privacy at a higher education academic library.

Thank you very much to the member for submitting such a careful question.

RIP, Aaron Schwartz.

[1] I say "led up to" rather than "led to" because while many believe the latter, the facts of the case clearly establish the former.

[2] Found as of November 14, 2021, here: https://www.aaup.org/report/1940-statement-principles-academic-freedom-and-tenure.

[3] I won't mince my words about that requirement: I don't like it. But I am not a member of Congress.

[4] And voluntary. This is why it is very important to read database licenses and to PUSH BACK on clauses that require draconian responses to alleged violations.

[5] By "firewalled," I mean that the vendor never knows the name or other identifying information of the alleged violator.

[6] Unless the student has signed a waiver. Then it can go to whoever has permission.

There are some really good, separate answers to this question.  I'll present them in the order I think would be useful to students and academics.

Answer #1: Clarity of ownership

Students own the academic work they author.  Even if they are completing an assignment with requirements tightly prescribed by a syllabus (such as: "Write an essay about four different civil rights cases heard in 2019; no more than 2,000 words; cite no less than four peer-reviewed law journal articles commenting on each case; identify a shared theme of the cases; conclude with a short paragraph as to which case is your favorite and why."[1]), the end result--if the student is the  only writer--is the student's.

Registration is not necessary to claim a copyright any more, but it remains strong evidence as to the ownership of a work.[2]  A student who authors something of importance to that student (such as a thesis, or a student film) should consider registration so they can readily assert that ownership.

Answer #2: Publicly establishing co-authorship

Not only do students own the copyright to their academic work, but students who are co-authors own that copyright together. 

This is true even if co-authors take on different tasks (such as: "Student 1 summarizes two cases, Student 2 summarizes two cases; each summary is 250 words; each cites to eight articles; they flip a coin to see whose paragraph on their favorite civil rights case is in the final version, and they proofread, edit, and finalize the document together."[3]), the end result--if they combine their work into a single whole--is the students'.

This is also true of students collaborating with a faculty member or a faculty research partner--even if one author/researcher has more experience than the other.  So, while most academic collaborations might not warrant the time and expense of registration, if the end result could be valuable (either financially, or as an academic credit in a published journal or on a CV) the co-authorship should be established in a written collaboration agreement, and confirmed with a joint registration.

Answer #3: Being able to quickly fight infringement

Before I dive into this one, a bit of commentary on copyright and academia:

The world of copyright--and of students taking credit for their artistic and academic expression--is changing: more and more authors are authorizing audiences to use their work through mechanisms such as an “open license” through the Creative Commons.

As a person who (still) believes that "information [still] wants to be free," I see this trend as a positive, but I do have one concern with this generous/generative approach: sometimes, the use of the work might be...wrong. 

What do I mean by this?  While an author might assume that anyone wishing to use their work would do so for a reason that aligns with that author's own perspective, values, and vision, that is simply not always the case. Sometimes, a person or organization could make a use of a work that is simply unacceptable to the author.[4]

Authors who think they could be impacted by this type of concern should consider using a copyright notice together with an easy way for would-be users to request permission, rather than an “open license.”  With this approach, an author/owner can still enable use, but will have a bit more control over what their work is associated with.[5]

The concern over work being used in a way that is objectionable to the author (and isn’t a fair use), is one of the biggest reasons to register a copyright: if a writer/photographer/muralist/etc. really wants to stop someone from infringing their work, that work's copyright must be registered, because that is the only way an author can sue for infringement and obtain an injunction.[6]

 Answer #4: Money

My final answer is 100% financial.

As the member's question states, authors no longer have to make a registration to claim a copyright. So what is the motivation to register?  In addition to answers "1" through "3," above, if a student/copyright owner, finding that their work has been infringed, wants to be able to sue for "statutory"^[7] damages, actual damages,[8] and attorney's fees, they need to have completed the registration of a published work prior to the infringement. 

Among many other things, these “statutory” damages, and the ability to recoup the costs of enforcement, are a motivation for a copyright attorney to take your infringement case without needing an up-front deposit.  So, it's another tool in the toolbox of copyright enforcement.

Final question

I believe answers "1" through "4" take care of the member's last two questions.  But what about the first one:

When is it advisable for an author/creator to register a work with the copyright office?

I don't usually play this card on "Ask the Lawyer," but I have to say, this is an almost unanswerable question.

For some people, the mere prestige of being able to look up their registrations at copyright.gov is important.

For others, the certainty of knowing they've done everything they can to protect their work from mis-use is critical.

And for still others--especially those planning to support themselves and their families through their intellectual property--registration is an important habit to ensure they are protecting their valuable property.   After all, copyrights are property rights left to a person's heirs after they die, just like money in the bank and real estate.

When I advise a client to register a Copyright, it is because they have flagged that work as important for some reason. For some, they might have already self-published it, and want to be able to control how their work is used. For others, it is because they plan to shop it or sell it, and they want to have optimal protection before they share it. And for others, it is because they suspect that the work has that "special something," and people in the future may copy it.

Any of these, and more, are valid reasons. For students, and those working in academia, the important thing is to be aware of your full body of work, to have clarity about its ownership, and --when you know you've created and own something important to you—to protect it.

Thank you for making sure today's students are thinking about their work and their intellectual property.

[1] Assignments like this are why students have either loved or hated my classes, AND why I never have to rely on a utility like "Turnitin" to detect cheating.  You just can't fake selecting a favorite civil rights case.

[2] The basics of registration, including the basic elements it asserts, are in "Circular 2" found at https://copyright.gov/circs/circ02.pdf.

[3] Back when I was in law school this type of group work drove me crazy.  I am a good team player professionally, but group academic work brought out the lone wolf in me.

[4] For example, a person who takes photos at a "Black Lives Matter" march, hoping the images will boost support for criminal justice reform, finds that their photos are being used by a political candidate who portrays the marchers as "the enemy."

[5] To carry forward my example, license for the photos could say "© NAME, 2020, to be used only with attribution and only after written permission.  For permission, please write to ADDRESS.  The author generally gives permission to those whose use will align with the author's values and agree to attribution."

[6] An injunction is a court order to "cease and desist" infringing use of the work.

[7] "Statutory damages" are those big numbers you used to see at the beginning of movies on video and DVD.  And although both mediums are quickly becoming a relic of the past, damages with fixed amounts set by law are not.

[8] The "actual" costs and damages created by the infringement.

Thank you for this careful and thoughtful question.  As we rush to migrate education to online, the small details can get overlooked.  As the member writes, information that used to be safeguarded in physical files or with separate passwords is increasingly accessible via a "one-stop shop."

Depending on the type of information involved, any number of ethical, privacy, and legal concerns can be impacted.

In this question, the member focuses on two types of information: library records, and FERPA-protected "education records."

For library records, there is an overlap of legal concerns—an overlap that was thoroughly discussed in the 5/6/19 answer the member cites.  In that reply, we established that depending on how a school/school library is set up, parent/guardian access to this information might be allowed--but it’s a question that should never be left to chance (it should always be answered by a school’s FERPA and library privileges policies).

To that answer, and considering the spirit of the times, I'd simply add: any librarian out there, operating in elementary and secondary education, should be lauded when they raise privacy concerns.  Librarians should work with IT departments and procurement professionals to ensure data management and automation enable the separately governed access to a student's library records.  Even when access is legally allowed by a system, it is still good to emphasize the privacy of library records.

Here are several examples of how this can be done:

• Including privacy considerations in “Requests for Proposals” (RFP’s) and quotes for automation and other data management software that will hold library or student records;
• Training both library and IT staff to keep the division of different types of records with different access parameters at top of mind (“Remember, library records aren’t just protected by FERPA and ED 2-d”);
• Ensuring that release and parental permission forms distinguish between and properly govern access to different types of records;
• When making quick changes based on pandemic exigencies,[1] ensuring at least one person is tasked with assessing if the implementation conforms with applicable institutional ethics, policies, and privacy regulations.
• Using deliberate awareness tools, such as a pop-up window that appears prior to enabling access to library files, saying "Student library records are confidential under state law.  Only properly authorized parties should view these records," is a good way to distinguish access to library information from other education records.[2]

For any educator reading this and thinking “Uh-oh,” if the horse is out of the barn, it is never too late to adopt some retroactive corrections.  When parental access is as plenary as the member describes, if there is a confirmed issue (such as access to one student’s enrollment records leading to access to all students’ enrollment records[3]) working with IT to address the specific utility hosting that information, and how it can be further locked down, is the only solution.

There will be times when addressing an issue like the ones raised by the member is simply not within the authority of the person concerned.  A concerned librarian or educator might even find themselves rebuffed when they try to ring the alarm! When that happens, it is time to kick it upstairs.  Each school should have a FERPA officer, and at least one senior administrator whose role is associated with enforcing a code of ethics or policies on privacy.  Concerns of this type are all appropriate to direct to such an administrator.

No one engineers a FERPA or privacy violation on purpose, but unwitting violations can happen when the learning environment has to change fast.  Being alert and ready to identify and correct concerns as soon as they emerge is critical.  Thanks for a solid question that shows how it's done.

[1] “Pandemic Exigencies” would be a good name for a heavy metal band.

[2] As discussed in that 5/6/19 answer, who "properly authorized parties" are can vary from school to school.

[3] This is indeed a possible violation.  FERPA §99.12 states "(a) If the education records of a student contain information on more than one student, the parent or eligible student may inspect and review or be informed of only the specific information about that student."